Sophie Postans, BA Art History and Visual Culture with Modern Languages (Chinese) student at the University of Exeter, took a close look at our Chinese silk jackets whilst undertaking an internship with the University of Exeter’s Professional Pathways to Arts, Culture and Heritage Programme.

The De Bruyne Collection was donated to the Museum of Cornish Life in 2010 by Anne-Cecile De Bruyne. The collection features many objects such as baby clothes, shoes, accessories and the objects I have chosen to research, two Chinese silk jackets. These jackets were originally thought to have been props for Anne-Cecile De Bruyne’s Great Uncle, the English painter Wilfrid Gabriel de Glehn; de Glehn was an important figure in the Impressionist movement and worked closely with fellow artist John Singer-Sargent. However, the information in the museum records shows the jackets were purchased in the UK during the 1970s which was some 20 years after de Glehn had died! After re-examining the information accompanying the collection it was discovered that some objects were purchased at Kensington Market during the 1970s for fancy dress, could these jackets have come from there too?

How come they are in the UK?

There is much evidence of the Western appetite for Chinese products, especially fashion. The Silk Road began in what is modern day Xi’an and extended all the way to the Baltic Sea in the West and out to Japan in the East, a 2^nd Century BCE Han Dynasty mission was the first major usage of the Silk Road but there is evidence to suggest there were trade routes before this point. It was during the Tang (618-906BCE) and Yuan (1279-1368) Dynasties that the Silk Road prospered and silk, along with other Chinese products, began making their way to the West. This contributed to a spread of cultures, ideas and arts across China, the Middle East and beyond, even getting as far as Rome, this shows a clear demand for Chinese goods which continues even to present day! As part of my research, I found a Harper’s Bazaar advert from the 1950s demonstrating the continued demand for Chinese products, so, it is feasible the jackets could have been purchased at Kensington Market, but, so far, I have found nothing to solidify this theory.

The two jackets

The first piece from the Museum of Cornish Life collection is a dark blue, silk jacket, this style of jacket is called an Ao (袄 ǎo). Aos are usually decorated, calf-length (but can be shorter) and are made from satins, silks, brocades or damasks, the silhouette is wide with open side slits. Aos are also always lined, the lining on this jacket is a paler bluey-turquoise patterned silk which creates a nice contrast with the darker outer fabric. The collar of this jacket, I believe, is what is known as a standing collar this one has been altered slightly however, the collar wraps around and forms a dajin/jiaoling (大禁dàjìn/交领jiāolǐng) style neckline. A dajin is any garment tied on the far right, it has a larger front panel which crosses over the body, similarly the jiaoling is a crossed collar wrapping over the wearer, importantly this style of neckline always crosses the wearer left over right. This Ao also has straight, wide sleeves with embroidery inside the cuff. Having looked closely at this section, there is the possibility this was a later addition to the jacket as there seems to be some extra stitching; however, it is also possible the cuff was meant to be turned up to show the design. The jacket is covered with detailed embroidery of various flowers such as chrysanthemums, plum blossoms/plums, peonies, lotus flowers and potentially some narcissus; there are also some ornate butterflies across the design of the Ao. Uncommonly this Ao does not have trimming around the hemlines which was popular for this style of garment, however, with it showing signs of alteration, it is possible this may have been removed. Another mystery of the dark blue Ao is some Chinese characters written on the inside just under the collar, I do not believe these characters to be modern Chinese and only the final character, xin (心xīn) meaning heart, is decipherable. Potentially these characters were written before Mandarin Chinese was fully standardised and more research would have to be done to work out what these characters mean.

The second piece is a light blue Ao however this jacket has a different neckline called a yuanling (圆领yuánlǐng) and a right-side fastening lapel. The lapel has multi-layered edging which continues around the neckline and hem of the garment, this kind of trimming was popularised during China’s Qing Dynasty (1644-1912). The light blue Ao has black pankou (盘扣pánkòu) fastenings which were traditional on many Chinese garments, particularly in the Song (960-1279) and Yuan Dynasties before metal closures were popularized in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). Pankou fastenings link to China’s long history of traditional knot crafts and can be extremely intricate. This jacket features five fastenings with gold beads as the closure and one with a knotted closure, it is strange that these are combined as beaded closures such as these were usually a sign of wealth, and the knots were seen on less wealthy individuals’ clothes. The Ao is also embroidered with various flora and fauna such as peonies, plum blossoms, chrysanthemums and butterflies, as well as two dragons. Dragons are traditionally linked with royalty and the Imperial Court in China, so it is a little strange that they are featured on this jacket, particularly as they are five-clawed dragons as this was a motif specifically reserved for the emperor! This style of Ao is much more characteristic of Qing Ao’s with the elaborate edging (though there are signs on the garment that there was different edging on before this) and ornate cuffs of the sleeves, decorated with gold and embroidered in blue with more butterflies, plum blossoms and chrysanthemums. The pattern on the silk of the light blue jacket looks like clouds which are a common motif in Chinese embroidery as background patterns.

Therefore, based on what I have managed to research, I believe these jackets to be late 19^th Century or early 20^th Century Qing/Qing inspired Ao jackets. I would have to do further study to determine whether these two jackets are actually from the period and region, however there are key similarities between the styles, so an educated guess suggests the maker at minimum took inspiration from these styles.

Style and material of the jackets

As mentioned, both pieces are jackets known as Aos, these were conceived from the shorter, unlined ru (襦rú) jackets of the Ming Dynasty and were worn by women. Aos were longer, double layered, and without a waistband but still had slits at the sides at the lower hem; this Ao style continued from the late Ming Dynasty into the Qing Dynasty. The Ming Dynasty was the last dynasty with an ethnically Han Chinese ruler, the Qing were Manchus and brought with them different fashions and ideas. Men were required to wear Manchu clothes and hairstyles (the penalty was death if they didn’t!) however, women, the elderly and the dead were exempt, so Han women commonly wore these Ao style jackets with trousers or skirts underneath. This gave a more Qing look to the Han traditional dress.

As previously mentioned, Aos were commonly made from damasks, silks or brocades. Silk production was invented in China as long ago as the time of the carving of the famous ‘Oracle Bones’. Ancient Yunnan in Southern China was key in China’s Southern Silk Road route which ended in India. As far back as the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046BC-771BC) people migrated to the Bashu (巴蜀 Bāshǔ) region in China’s Sichuan province where silk production was revitalized and silk products began to be exported from the area. During the Han and Three Kingdoms Period (202BC-280BC) technological advancements in silk weaving led to a new Sichuan Brocade being developed with Chengdu (famous nowadays for its panda research base) becoming an important weaving hub. There is even evidence to suggest that in Yunnan, trade involving objects such as fur, gold and livestock, amongst other things, were valued based on how much silk they were worth; silk effectively became a currency for Chinese people, this demonstrates the importance of the material not just for manufacturing but also trade along the various Silk Road routes.

Chinese fashion and symbolism

Many people in the West held the problematic view that Chinese fashion was static and had no changing trends or styles until Westerners arrived in China in the early 20^th Century. However, in the 18^th and 19^th Centuries in China, fashion was increasingly democratized and made available to wider audiences; the more lavish and celebratory designs were not just for nobles and the Imperial Court anymore. In particular, Qing Dynasty fashion popularized the emphasis on decorative trimming and accessories which we can see on the two jackets from the Museum of Cornish Life collection.

As I mentioned, silk and the trade of silk was hugely important in China’s exports as well as fashion trends, another traditional craft which was interlinked with the silk trade was China’s expertise in embroidery. A famous technique used on the jackets is the Forbidden Stitch, also known as the Chinese, Peking or Blind Knot. It was introduced in the Ming Dynasty to China with its origin being the French Knot, it then became popular in the Qing Dynasty and made its way into embroidery in the Forbidden City. There are two potential origin stories for the name of the stitch, one is that it is called ‘Forbidden’ due to its use in the Forbidden City, the other is that the stitch was rumoured to make the artisans who did the stitching blind so was banned by decree, though this is less likely.

There are four nationally recognized schools of embroidery in China, Xiang (湘 xiāng) from Hunan, Shu (蜀shǔ) from Sichuan, Yue (粤yuè) from Guangdong and (arguably the most famous and revered) Su (苏sū) from Jiangsu; these were formally established during the Qing Dynasty period. These embroidery and craft traditions are steeped in symbolism and ‘hidden’ meanings which add another layer of intrigue to the jackets in the collection.

Part of this symbolism is rooted in one of the religions followed in China, Taoism. There is a fundamental idea in Taoism stating that there are five elements, each of which are represented by tangible and intangible things that describe how Yin and Yang interact. These elements are wood (木mù), fire (火huǒ), earth (土tǔ), metal (金jīn) and water (水shuǐ), these elements are associated with colours, seasons, feelings and directions, amongst other things. Each of these tangible/intangible representations of the elements can explain why certain design choices were made in different dynasties’ clothing. For example, the element ‘earth’ is linked to the colour yellow, yellow is associated with sunlight therefore symbolises things like bright prospects and wisdom, the direction it is linked to is centre, thus explaining why many different emperors throughout Chinese history wore yellow clothes; it represented them as a central, powerful, all-knowing leader. The two jackets in the Museum of Cornish Life collection are blue, this is linked to Spring as it represents brilliance and bloom, the flower associated with Spring is the peony, these are seen on both jackets; orchids are also associated heavily with Spring, they might be featured on the dark blue jacket, but I believe the flower depicted looks more like narcissus. Additionally, the light blue Ao jacket features dragons linking to the mystical meaning of the colour blue in Chinese tradition; peonies and dragons are also both symbols of royalty!

There are other flowers also linked to specific seasons and therefore different colours and elements. Lotus flowers are associated with Summer (they are a symbol of purity, harmony and succession), chrysanthemums with Autumn (they represent longevity) and plums and plum blossoms signal Winter and the coming of Spring (they represent renewal, perseverance and purity, plum blossoms having five petals makes them extra auspicious as it links to the five blessings of: long life, wealth, health, virtue, and a peaceful death); narcissus also represent Winter and symbolise good fortune and accomplishment, I believe some are embroidered on the dark blue jacket. As mentioned, peonies are closely associated with Spring and royalty, they symbolise accomplishment, when depicted with narcissus it conveys the message of being blessed with a long life, wealth and honour. Each of these flowers, I believe, are depicted on both Ao jackets, bringing auspicious and lucky symbolism to the design and also potentially to the wearer! Both jackets also feature butterflies which were symbols of love, freedom, romance and beauty, when depicted with flowers they can suggest a good match between a man and a woman. As a result, butterflies and flowers became a popular motif for female Chinese artists. Here is an example I found from the Cornell University of a Ming or Qing embroidered panel with similar designs to the jackets in the Museum of Cornish Life collection.

Conclusion

Overall, these jackets are at least inspired by, if not are, Qing Dynasty Ao jackets. There is definitely some symbolism linked to the embroidery design, especially as the flowers depicted are so specific and have clear meaning in Chinese culture, which made them fascinating to research. It is impossible to know whether these jackets were purchased in Kensington Market specifically, but logic would suggest they were at least bought in London as the mix of cultures would have been more diverse as opposed to Cornwall at this time but why they were there cannot be known. My bibliography is attached below should you wish to do any further reading, and the jackets are available at the Museum of Cornish Life. For more examples of Qing Dynasty Aos, the Victoria and Albert Museum and British Museum in London have some great examples on their websites!

Sophie Postans, BA Art History and Visual Culture with Modern Languages (Chinese) student at the University of Exeter.

Bibliography:

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